Celebrated reggae producer Winston Riley has died, months after he was shot in the head in his native Jamaica. Riley fell into a coma after he was shot in Kingston on Nov. 1, and he died Thursday. He was 65. Widely recognized as one of the most successful reggae producers of all time, Riley began his career as a singer at the age of 16, when he formed his band the Techniques. They recorded with producers Byron Lee and Duke Reid before Riley quit the group and moved behind the soundboard to try his hand at beatmaking.

He went on to work with reggae acts including Boris Gardiner and Johnny Osbourne and scored international success in 1971 with Dave and Ansell Collins' hit "Double Barrel." Riley became known for creating the popular Stalag beat and later helped launch the careers of Buju Banton, Lone Ranger and Frankie Paul. Riley's Stalag rhythm is estimated to have provided the music foundation for an estimated 400 songs.

Riley had been targeted in a number of vicious attacks in the past year. He was shot in August and stabbed repeatedly in an incident in September. Police have struggled to establish a motive for any of the attacks. Riley's son, radio DJ Kurt Riley, remains equally baffled by the shocking wave of violence. He told the Jamaica Observer newspaper, "Unfortunately, Daddy didn't wake up so we could talk to him to find out if there was something he was not telling us. He was a straightforward man who was allergic to hypocrisy."

Winston Riley is survived by several children and grandchildren.

Biography

Riley was born in Kingston, Jamaica.^[2] His entry into the music industry was at 16 years old in 1962, when he formed The Techniques harmony group, which recorded their first tracks for Byron Lee, and then later recorded for Duke Reid.^[1] In 1968, he left the group and formed his own Techniques record label, moving into production, producing artistes like Boris Gardiner, The Escorts, Alton and Hortense Ellis, and Johnny Osbourne.^[1][3] His own song, "Double Barrel", performed by Dave and Ansell Collins under Riley's own production, was one of the first international reggae hits, reaching #1 in the Dutch and UK Singles Chart.^[3]

His "Stalag" riddim has often been used. The rhythm was first released in 1973, as the instrumental Ansell Collins track, "Stalag 17", named after the World War II film of the same name. It reappeared later as "Stalag 18", "Stalag 19", "Stalag 20" and "Ring the Alarm Quick". Riley produced General Echo's hugely influential The Slackest album in 1979, and he went on to launch the careers of Sister Nancy, Buju Banton, Cutty Ranks, Lone Ranger, and Frankie Paul.^[3]The band Widespread Panic recorded his song "Arlene", and have performed many versions of it at their concerts.

The Beat -  On tour in Holland & Belgium

Januari 26th     LVC              Leiden
Januari 27th     Dynamo       Eindhoven
Januari 28th     Romein        Groningen
Januari 29th     Het Depot    Leuven

Formed in the working class suburbs of industrial Birmingham in England in 1978 The Beat arose at a time of high unemployment and social upheaval. From the outset the band offered messages of hope and peace with an insight into sociopolitical topics would later alongside The Specials see them heralded as forerunners of the whole 2-Tone Ska movement.

Ranking Roger and Dave Wakeling led with vocal duties while Andy Cox and David Steele took guitar and bass duties with Everett Morton supplying the most distinctive of drumming styles. Added to this mix was the renowned saxophonist Saxa, adding the deliciously warm Jamaican ska instrumental flavour that is forever associated with the bands sound. Having played saxophone with Prince Buster, Laurel Aitken and Desmond Dekker in the first wave of ska The Beat on formation seemed to immediately come of age.

The Beat's first single was the infectious cover of Smokey Robinson's 'Tears of A Clown' which on release went straight into the National Top 10 at No.6. The record, an effortless like fusion between a number of different musical styles such as Ska, Punk, Pop, Soul and Reggae, immediately saw the band finding themselves an overnight success.

Further hit singles from the first album included 'Mirror In The Bathroom', 'Can't Get Used to Losing You', 'Hands Off... She's Mine' and 'Best Friend', and with a catalogue such as this it was easy to see why the The Beat would become one of the most popular recording and live acts in the UK.

Huge radio airplay followed in the US which saw The Beat head stateside and then further with world tours alongside some of the biggest performing artists such as The Clash, The Police, REM, Talking Heads, The Pretenders and of course The Specials.

While The Beat could deliver with what almost seemed effortless ease songs of Love, Peace and Unity. Songs such as 'Stand Down Margaret' saw them spearhead a movement wanting real social change and multicutural inclusion. The thousands that sang along in unison with the band at nuclear disarmament marches bear testament to the uplifting feeling the band could evoke with their musical swagger and genuine care for humanity.

After 3 Gold and Platinum top selling albums worldwide with 'I Just Cant Stop It', 'Wh'appen', and 'Special Beat Service' - The Beat's musical fluidity and openess, delivered in their explosive all encompassing live shows allowed them to reach hundreds of thousands of fans across the world, communicating positivity and freedom through not only their music, but their actions and genuine commitment to causes.

Almost in reaction to the height of their fame The Beat to the disbelief of many disbanded with Ranking Roger and Dave Wakeling forming General Public with Mickey Billingham of Dexys Midnight Runners and Andy Cox and David Steele putting together the Fine Young Cannibals. Though both enjoyed phenomenal success, no other artist has sounded like The Beat or indeed is ever likely too. Ranking Roger also briefly joined Mick Jones' post-Clash band Big Audio Dynamite injecting his toasting and vocal style that to this day remains his trademark.

After numerous offers to return to the stage The Beat returned in 2003 for a sell out show at The Royal Festival Hall with the inclusion of Ranking Jnr taking vocal duties to an accolade of critical acclaim. With Dave Wakeling heading to the US Ranking Roger alongside Everett Morton, Ranking Jnr and Mickey Billingham returned to their roots with deeper rhythms, a wall of sound that transcends time and an unwavering dedication to real unity and love that leaves the future still to be written, there can be no question...

...The Beat are back!

Son of a tailor and builder, Eccles spent his childhood in the countryside of the parish of Saint Mary. Eccles had an itinerant childhood due to his father's need to travel Jamaica seeking work.^[2] He used to regularly attend church, and he became influenced by spiritual singing; In his words: "One of my uncles was a spiritual revivalist, who always did this heavy type of spiritual singing, and I got to love that".^[3] Eccles's professional singing career began as a teenager, working the north-coast hotel circuit in the mid-1950s.^[2] In his late teens, he moved to Ocho Rios, where he performed at night in various shows, with artists such as The Blues Busters, Higgs & Wilson and Buster Brown. He moved to Kingston in 1959, where he started his recording career. He first recorded for Coxsone Dodd, who had organized a talent show in which Eccles took part.^[2][3][4]

Eccles had a Jamaican hit in 1961 with the early ska song "Freedom", which was recorded in 1959, and was featured on Dodd's sound system for two years before it was released.^[5] It was one of the first Jamaican songs with socially-oriented lyrics. The song discussed the concept of repatriation to Africa, an idea developed by the growing Rastafari movement. The song became the first Jamaican hit to be used for political purposes; Alexander Bustamante, founder of the Jamaican Labour Party and at that time Chief Minister of Jamaica adopted it for his fight against the Federation of the West Indies in 1960. In the following years, Eccles had other successful songs, mixing boogie/rhythm and blues influences with ska rhythms, such as "River Jordan" and "Glory Hallelujah".

In 1962, he started promoting concerts and set up his Christmas Morning talent show; first with Dodd, then on his own.^[6] He organized concerts for The Clarendonians in 1963, and for The Wailers in 1964 and 1965. He launched other talent search contests, with Battle of the Stars, Clancy Eccles Revue, Independent Revue and "Reggae Soul Revue,^[6] from which emerged stars such as Barrington Levy and Culture.

Starting in 1963, he recorded with producers such as Charlie Moo (Leslie Kong's business partner) and the husband of Sonia Pottinger, Lyndon.^[5] He couldn't make a living from his music, so he quit in 1965 to work as a tailor in Annotto Bay. During this period, he made stage outfits for musicians such as Kes Chin, The Mighty Vikings, Byron Lee and the Dragonaires, Carlos Malcolm and The Blues Busters.^[6]

He went back to music in 1967, producing his own recordings as well as those of other artists.^[7] He scored a hit with Eric 'Monty' Morris' reggae song "Say What You're Saying", and with his own song "Feel The Rhythm", one of several records that were instrumental in the shift from rocksteady to reggae.^[7] Eccles has also been credited with deriving the name 'reggae' from 'streggae', Kingston slang for a good-time girl.^[8] Eccles' first hit, "What Will Your Mama Say" which was released by the recently-created United Kingdom label, Pama Records. In 1968, his song "Fattie Fattie" became a skinhead reggae classic, along with his productions of recordings by the toasting DJ King Stitt ("Fire Corner", "Van Cleef", "Herbman Shuffle"). Eccles recorded many organ-led instrumentals with his session band The Dynamites (same band has Derrick Harriott's Crystalites), featuring Winston Wright. In 1970, Eccles helped pave the way to the dub music genre by releasing an instrumental version of "Herbman Shuffle" called "Phantom", with a mix focusing on the bass line.

Eccles launched different record labels for his works: Clansone, New Beat and Clandisc (the latter also the name of a sub-label set up by Trojan Records for Eccles' UK releases).^[9] He recorded artists such as Alton Ellis, Joe Higgs, the Trinidian Lord Creator ("Kingston Town"), Larry Marshall, Hemsley Morris, Earl Lawrence, The Beltones, Glen Ricks, Cynthia Richards, Buster Brown and Beres Hammond.^[7][9] Appreciated by musicians for his fairness and sense of equity, he helped Lee Perry set up his Upsetter record label in 1968 after Perry left Dodd's employment, and helped Winston 'Niney' Holmes (later known as 'The Observer') record his first hit as a producer in 1971 ("Blood & Fire").^[7][10]

A socialist militant, Eccles was appointed as an adviser on the music industry to Michael Manley's People's National Party (PNP) and took part in Jamaica's 1972 prime ministerial elections by organizing a "Bandwagon" featuring musicians such as Bob Marley & the Wailers, Dennis Brown, Max Romeo, Delroy Wilson and Inner Circle, performing around the island in support of Manley's campaign.^[6] Throughout the 1970s, he remained close to Manley and wrote several songs in praise of the PNP program, including his hits "Power For The People", "Rod Of Correction" or "Generation Belly".

Eccles' political interests meant that he spent less time on music, although in the late 1970s, Eccles had further success as a producer with recordings by Tito Simon and Exuma the Obeah Man, as well as collaborations with King Tubby.^[2] After the 1970s, new Eccles recordings were rare, and he concentrated on live concert promotion and re-issues of his back catalogue.^[2] In the 1980s, Eccles slowed down his musical activities, and he never met success again, apart from a few political songs, such as "Dem Mash Up The Country" in 1985. Eccles died on June 30, 2005 in Spanish Town Hospital from complications of a heart attack.

Eccles' son, Clancy Eccles Jr., has followed his father into the music business, initially performing as simply "Clancy".^[11][12]

Dennis Brown was born on 1 February 1957 at Jubilee Hospital in Kingston, Jamaica.^[4] His father Arthur was a scriptwriter, actor, and journalist, and he grew up in a large tenement yard between North Street and King Street in Kingston with his parents, three elder brothers and a sister, although his mother died in the 1960s.^[4][5] He attended Central Branch Primary School and later St. Stephens College. He began his singing career at the age of nine, while still at junior school, with an end-of-term concert the first time he performed in public, although he had been keen on music from an even earlier age, and as a youngster was a keen fan of American balladeers such as Brook Benton, Sam Cooke, Frank Sinatra, and Dean Martin.^[4] He cited Nat King Cole as one of his greatest early influences.^[4] He regularly hung around JJ's record store on Orange Street in the rocksteady era and his relatives and neighbours would often throw Brown pennies to hear him sing in their yard.^[4] Brown's first professional appearance came at the age of eleven, when he visited a local club where his brother Basil was performing a comedy routine, and where he made a guest appearance with the club's resident group, the Fabulous Falcons (a group which included Cynthia Richards, David "Scotty" Scott, and Noel Brown).^[4] On the strength of this performance he was asked to join the group as a featured vocalist.^[4] When the group performed at a JLP conference at the National Arena, Brown sang two songs - Desmond Dekker's "Unity" and Johnnie Taylor's "Ain't That Loving You" - and after the audience showered the stage with money, he was able to buy his first suit with the proceeds.^[4] Bandleader Byron Lee performed on the same bill, and was sufficiently impressed with Brown to book him to perform on package shows featuring visiting US artists, where he was billed as the "Boy Wonder".^[4] As a young singer he was influenced by older contemporaries such as Delroy Wilson (who he later cited as the single greatest influence on his style of singing),^[6] Errol Dunkley, John Holt, Ken Boothe, and Bob Andy.^[4] Brown's first recording was an original song called "Lips of Wine" for producer Derrick Harriott, but when this was not released, he recorded for Clement "Coxsone" Dodd's Studio One label, and his first session yielded the single "No Man is an Island", recorded when Brown was aged twelve and released in late 1969.^[7] The single received steadily increasing airplay for almost a year before becoming a huge hit throughout Jamaica.^[7] Brown recorded up to a dozen sessions for Dodd, amounting to around thirty songs, and also worked as a backing singer on sessions by other artists, including providing harmonies along with Horace Andy and Larry Marshall on Alton Ellis's Sunday Coming album.^[7][8] Brown was advised by fellow Studio One artist Ellis to learn guitar to help with his songwriting, and after convincing Dodd to buy him an instrument, was taught the basics by Ellis.^[7] These Studio One recordings were collected on two albums, No Man is an Island and If I Follow my Heart (the title track penned by Alton Ellis), although Brown had left Studio One before either was released.^[9] He went on to record for several producers including Lloyd Daley ("Baby Don't Do It" and "Things in Life"), Prince Buster ("One Day Soon" and "If I Had the World"), and Phil Pratt ("Black Magic Woman", "Let Love In", and "What About the Half"), before returning to work with Derrick Harriott, recording a string of popular singles including "Silhouettes", "Concentration", "He Can't Spell", and "Musical Heatwave", with the pick of these tracks collected on the Super Reggae and Soul Hits album in 1973.^[10] Brown also recorded for Vincent "Randy" Chin ("Cheater"), Dennis Alcapone ("I Was Lonely"), and Herman Chin Loy ("It's Too Late" and "Song My Mother Used to Sing") among others, with Brown still at school at this stage of his career.^[11]

International success

In 1972, Brown began an association that would result in his breakthrough as an internationally successful artist; He was asked by Joe Gibbs to record an album for him, and one of the tracks recorded as a result, "Money in my Pocket", was a hit with UK reggae audiences and quickly became a favourite of his live performances. This original version of "Money in my Pocket" was in fact produced by Winston "Niney" Holness on behalf of Gibbs, with musical backing from the Soul Syndicate.^[12] In the same year, Brown performed as part of a Christmas morning showcase in Toronto, Canada, along with Delroy Wilson, Scotty, Errol Dunkley, and the Fabulous Flames, where he was billed as the "Boy Wonder of Jamaica" and was considered the star of the show in a local newspaper review.^[12] The song's popularity in the UK was further cemented with the release a deejay version, "A-So We Stay (Money in Hand)", credited to Big Youth and Dennis Brown, which outsold the original single and topped the Jamaican singles chart.^[12] Brown and Holness became close, even sharing a house in Pembroke Hall.^[8] Brown followed this with another collaboration with Holness on "Westbound Train", which was the biggest Jamaican hit of summer 1973,^[13] and Brown's star status was confirmed when he was voted Jamaica's top male vocalist in a poll by Swing magazine the same year.^[13] Brown followed this success with "Cassandra" and "No More Will I Roam", and tracks such as "Africa" and "Love Jah", displaying Brown's Rastafari beliefs, became staples on London's sound system scene.^[13] In 1973, Brown was hospitalized due to fatigue caused by overwork, although at the time rumours spread that he only had one lung and had only a week to live, or had contracted tuberculosis.^[13] He was advised to take an extended break from performing and concentrated instead on his college studies.^[13]

Brown returned to music and toured the United Kingdom for the first time in late summer 1974 as part of a Jamaican showcase, along with Cynthia Richards, Al Brown, Sharon Forrester, and The Maytals, after which he was invited to stay on for further dates (where he was backed by The Cimarons, staying in the UK for another three months.^[14] While in the UK, he recorded for the first time since his hospitalization, working with producer Sydney Crooks, and again backed by the Cimarons.^[14] While Brown was in the UK, Gibbs released an album collecting recordings made earlier in Jamaica, released as The Best of Dennis Brown, and Brown's first single to get a proper UK release was issued on the Synda label - "No More Will I Roam".^[15] He returned to Jamaica for Christmas, but six weeks later was back in the UK, now with Holness in tow as his business manager, to negotiate a record deal with Trojan Records, the first Brown album to be released as a result being Just Dennis, although the pair would be left out of pocket after Trojan's collapse and subsequent buyout by Saga Records.^[16] On their return to Jamaica, Brown and Holness resumed recording in earnest with tracks for a new album, including "So Long Rastafari", "Boasting", and "Open the Gate".^[17] During 1975, Brown also recorded one-off sessions for Sonia Pottinger ("If You leave Me") and Bunny Lee ("So Much Pain", a duet with Johnny Clarke), and the first recordings began to appear on Brown's new DEB Music label.^[18] In the wake of the Trojan collapse, Brown and Holness arranged a deal with local independent label owners Castro Brown (who ran Morpheus Records) and Larry Lawrence (Ethnic Fight) to distribute their releases in the UK.^[19] Brown saw the UK as the most important market to target and performed for five consecutive nights at the Georgian Club in Croydon to raise funds to start his new DEB Music label with Castro Brown.^[20] In early 1976, Castro secured a deal with Radio London disc jockey Charlie Gillett for Morpheus (and hence DEB) output to be issued through the latter's Oval Records, which had a distribution deal with Virgin Records, but after a dispute over Castro's separate supply of these records to London record shops, the deal was scrapped and the early DEB releases suffered from a lack of promotion.^[21] Later that year, Brown voiced two tracks at Lee "Scratch" Perry's Black Ark studio, "Take a Trip to Zion" and "Wolf and Leopard", the latter of which was a massive hit in Jamaica and would prove to be one of Brown's most popular songs, with a lyric criticizing those criminals who "rode the natty dread bandwagon".^[22] Brown confirmed in an interview in Black Echoes that he had parted company with Holness, stating that "I was going along with one man's ideas for too long. Niney was trying to find a new beat at all times, which was disconcerting, so I hadn't been working with my true abilities. Now I know that I can produce myself".^[23]

Brown began working again with Joe Gibbs, with an agreement that in return for studio time for his own productions, Brown would allow Gibbs use of any rhythm recorded in the process.^[24] The first album from this arrangement, the 1977 release Visions of Dennis Brown, gave him his biggest success so far, blending conscious themes and love songs, and confirming Brown's transformation from child star to grown up artist.^[25] The biblical-themed sleeve and portrait of Haile Selassie on the back complemented the roots reggae tracks on the album, including "Repatriation", "Jah Can Do it", and cover versions of Earl 16's "Malcolm X" and Clive Hunt's "Milk and Honey". The album immediately entered the Black Echoes chart and stayed there well into the following year, although it was only available in the UK as an expensive import.^[26] Visions... was voted reggae album of the year by Melody Maker writers and was given the same award by readers of Black Echoes.^[26] A reissued "Wolf and Leopard" single, and the eventual album release of the same name also sold well in the UK, both topping the Black Echoes chart.^[27]

NME cover from 24 February 1979

Brown toured the UK in Autumn 1977 with Big Youth, and described the tour: "It's like I was appointed to deliver certain messages and now is the time to deliver them".^[28] He had also begun producing recordings by his protege, Junior Delgado. In 1978, Brown moved to live in London, and set up premises in Battersea Rise, near Clapham Junction to relaunch the DEB Music label with Castro Brown, with artists featured on the label including Junior Delgado, 15.16.17, Bob Andy, Lennox Brown, and later, Gregory Isaacs.^[29] Brown had further success himself with a discomix of "How Could I Leave You", a version of The Sharks' rocksteady standard "How Could I Live" with accompanying toast by Prince Mohamed. In March 1978, Brown flew to Jamaica, where he was booked at the last minute to perform at the One Love Peace Concert at the National Arena, backed by Lloyd Parks' We The People Band.^[30] Visions of Dennis Brown was given a wider distribution via a deal between Lightning Records and WEA and topped the UK reggae album chart in September 1978, this chart run lasting for five months.^[31] In August 1978, Brown returned to the UK, bringing Junior Delgado with him, and DEB Music released a series of singles, although they sold moderately compared to the label's earlier successes, but in the same month, Brown's breakthrough single was first released. Initially released as a discomix featuring a new version of "Money in my Pocket" and the deejay version "Cool Runnings" by Price Mohamed, which became unavailable for a time after quickly selling out its first pressing, this single gave Brown his first UK Top 40 hit, reaching #14 the following year and becoming one of the biggest international hits in Jamaica's history,^[32][33] after crossing over first into soul clubs and then rock clubs.^[34] This success led to Brown featuring on the cover of the NME in February 1979.

Brown's next two albums were both released on DEB - So Long Rastafari and Joseph's Coat of Many Colours, although the label was closed down in 1979, after which Brown again did the rounds of Jamaica's top producers, as well as continuing self-productions with singles such as "The Little Village" and "Do I Worry?" in 1981.^[35]

A&M and the dancehall era

With continuing commercial success, Brown signed an international deal with A&M Records in 1981, and now based permanently in the UK, his first album release for the label was the Gibbs-produced Foul Play, which while not wholly a success included the roots tracks "The Existence of Jah" and "The World is Troubled".^[36] This was followed in 1982 by Love Has Found its Way, a Gibbs/Brown/Willie Lindo production which blended lovers rock with a more 'pop' sound, and again was not a great success.^[36] His final album with the label, 1983's The Prophet Rides Again again mixed roots themes with commercial R&B style tracks, and proved to be his swansong with the label.^[36] While his association with A&M had taken him in a more commercial pop direction, Kingston's music scene had shifted towards the new dancehall era, and Brown enthusiatically adapted to the new sound, recording for some of the genre's major producers including Prince Jammy and Gussie Clarke. In the early 1980s he also started a new label, Yvonne's Special, dedicated to his wife.^[37] In 1984, he collaborated with Gregory Isaacs on the album Two Bad Superstars Meet and the hit single "Let aaf Sum'n", recorded with Sly & Robbie and Jammy, which was followed by a second album featuring the two stars, Judge Not, in 1985.^[38] Brown released a huge amount of work through the 1980s, including the 1986 Jammy-produced album The Exit, but his biggest success of the decade came in 1989 with the Gussie Clarke-produced duet with Isaacs "Big All Round", and the album Unchallenged.^[38] He continued to record prolifically in the 1990s, notably on the Three Against War album in 1995 with Beenie Man and Triston Palmer, and on albums produced by Mikey Bennett, and his profile in the United States was raised by a series of album releases on RAS Records.^[38] In the late 1990s he was managed by Tommy Cowan, who contrasted Brown to Bob Marley, who he had also managed, stating "Bob Marley was a serious businessman, I don't think Dennis was as serious when it came to investment. Dennis was like a community person, he would earn money and in one hour he would give it away."^[39] Brown said of his approach to songwriting in the late 1990s:

"When I write a song I try to follow Joseph's way - deliverance through vision from all - true vibration. I want to be a shepherd in my work, teaching and learning, really singing so much. I don't want to sing and not live it. I must live it. If I can sing songs that people can watch me living, then they can take my work"^[40]

Brown's 1994 album Light My Fire was nominated for a Grammy Award, as was the last album recorded by Brown, Let Me Be the One (in 2001).^[41][42]

Death

In the late 1990s, Brown's health began to deteriorate, with longstanding respiratory problems exacerbated by cocaine use leading to him being taken ill in May 1999, after touring in Brazil with other reggae singers, where he was diagnosed with pneumonia.^[41] After returning to Kingston, Jamaica, on the evening of June 30, 1999, he was rushed to Kingston's University Hospital, suffering from cardiac arrest.^[43] Brown died the next day, and the official cause of his death was a collapsed lung,^[43] although his cocaine habit was considered a contributing factor.^{[38][44][45][46]} Sitting Jamaican Prime Minister P. J. Patterson and former prime minister, serving at the time as opposition leader, Edward Seaga of the Jamaica Labour Party both spoke at Brown's funeral, which was held on July 17, 1999 in Kingston. The service, which lasted for three hours, also featured live performances by Maxi Priest, Shaggy, and five of Brown's sons. Brown was then buried at Kingston's National Heroes Park.^[47] Brown was survived by his wife Yvonne and thirteen children.^[3] Jamaica's Prime Minister P. J. Patterson paid tribute to Brown, saying "Over the years, Dennis Brown has distinguished himself as one of the finest and most talented musicians of our time. The Crown Prince of Reggae as he was commonly called. He has left us with a vast repertoire of songs which will continue to satisfy the hearts and minds of us all for generations to come."^[48]

Cole was born in Kingston, Jamaica in 1945 and nicknamed "Stranger" by his family, as they considered that he didn't resemble any member of his kin.^[1] Cole was initially successful as a songwriter, writing "In and out the Window", which was a hit for Eric "Monty" Morris.^[2] This success gave him the chance to make his recording debut in 1962, instantly finding success with singles such as "Rough and Tough" and "When You Call My Name" (a duet with Patsy Todd) for producer Arthur "Duke" Reid.^[3] Further success followed with singles for Reid through to the mid-1960s, and he also worked with other producers at this time, including Clement "Coxsone" Dodd (a duet with Ken Boothe on "Worlds Fair"), and Prince Buster.^[3] Further duets included recordings with Gladstone Anderson (on "Just Like a River")^[4] and Hortense Ellis, the tendency to record duets apparently due to his shyness when it came to singing alone.^[1] In the late 1960s and early 1970s he recorded with several producers, including Bunny Lee, Lee "Scratch" Perry, and Sonia Pottinger.^[5] These included further material with Todd as Stranger & Patsy. In 1971 he emigrated to England, where he toured extensively, and moved on again to Canada in 1973, settling in Toronto.^[3] He worked as a machinist in the Tonka Toy factory in Toronto and later opened the first Caribbean record shop in Toronto His first album, "Foward" in the Land of Sunshine, was released in 1976, with a handful of further albums released over the next ten years, most on his own label.^[3] In 2006, Cole released his first album in twenty years, Morning Train, a collaboration with Jah Shaka. Cole is featured in the 2009 documentary Rocksteady: The Roots of Reggae, in which he and other stars of the rocksteady era reunited to record a new album of the same name, released in August 2009.^[6]

Cole's son, Squiddly, followed him into a music career, working as a drummer for artists including Ziggy Marley and Mutabaruka.^[5]

Mento music had its beginnings in Jamaica in the 19th century, and was  uniquely Jamaican fusion of African and European musical traditions. In mento's recorded history pre-history, from the 1920s through the 1940s, a number of Jamaican songs were put to wax by Caribbean jazz artists. In the 1930 and 1940s, Slim and Sam, a mento group who performed in Kingston, gained renown and are recalled today. They're  remembered for their originals, and sold "tracts" -- printed lyrics -- at their performances. (The book "Reggae Routes" by Kevin O'Brien Chang and Wayne Chen lists the names of some of these originals, and  has additional information and even a picture of Slim and Sam.)

But it wasn't until the early 1950s that true mento recordings first began to appear on 78 RPM discs. This decade was mento’s golden age, as a variety of artists recorded mento songs in an assortment of rhythms and styles. It was the peak of mento's creativity and popularity in Jamaica and the birth of Jamaica's recording industry.

These recordings reveal mento to be a diverse musical genre, sometimes played with reckless abandon and other times with orderly precision. In addition to mento's African and European roots, by this time, it had also encompassed pan-Caribbean influences, as well as from American jazz. Although it was informed by a world of music, mento is clearly, uniquely Jamaican. And as Jamaica's original music, all other Jamaican music can trace its roots to mento.

Some styles of mento would evolve into ska and reggae. (As a matter of fact, some mento songs are still being recorded inna dancehall stylee today.) Other styles, while purely mento, seem to have done less to contribute to the development of later Jamaican music.

During this time, Trinidadian calypso was the Caribbean’s top musical export, and the term "Calypso" was used generically applied to Jamaican mento as well. Far more often than it was called by its proper name, mento was called "calypso", "kalypso" or "mento calypso". Adding to the confusion, Jamaica had its own calypso singers that did not record mento, such as Lord Creator. (The Trinidad-born Creator later became a ska singer for Studio 1.) And mento artists would often perform calypso songs in the mento style, or record a mento song with calypso influence. Some mento artists followed the calypsonian practice of adding a title such as "Count" or "Lord" to their name. But make no mistake, mento is a distinctly different sound from calypso, with its own instrumentation, rhythms, pacing, vocal styles, harmonies, and lyrical concerns.

The Classic Rural Sound

The classic mento sound is the acoustic, informal, folksy rural style. Still sometimes referred to as country music in Jamaica, it's easy to imagine farmers and their families celebrating harvest with a mento dance. Typical instruments included banjo, acoustic guitar, a home-made saxophone, clarinet or flute made from bamboo, a variety of hand percussion and a rumba box.  Often, these songs had a proto-reggae beat, and sounded like an acoustic antediluvian form of reggae. (The mento proto-reggae beat was especially reminiscent of reggae where the dub echo doubles the guitar chop. Bob Marley's "Sun Is Shining" from "Kaya" is an example that leaps to mind.)

The frequent use of banjo in mento may come as a surprise, since this did not carry over into later Jamaican music. This is strange, considering how great this instrument sounds in mento, and how many different ways it was played. It strummed the rhythm similarly to the role of guitar in reggae. It was a lead instrument, sometimes played very precisely and sometimes very loosely. It could riff wildly, or be played as orderly and pointillisticly as a music box. Sometimes it chimed like a steel drum, other times it sounded like a mandolin. But banjo always brightened up the song.

One thing mento banjo doesn't sound like is the banjo playing heard in bluegrass or other American musical traditions. Mento banjo had different approaches.

Although you can count on one hand the number of reggae songs that feature banjo, some guitar techniques heard in reggae, such as the picked rhythmic playing employed by many Jamaican  guitarists sound as if they have their roots in the banjo playing of the island's past.

Acoustic guitar was typically a strummed rhythm instrument. Banjo or winds most typically handled any soloing.

The bamboo sax had a distinctive, organic sound. The Sugar Belly page has information, pictures and even video of this instrument in action.

The rumba box is a large thumb piano built from from a wooden box. A large circular sound hole is cut into the front, over which are a number of tuned metal tines. These are plucked to produce bass notes. One of reggae's hallmarks is a sparse, thunderous bass-line. The rumba box provided much the same for mento, albeit in a more rudimentary form. Depending on how the tines were plucked, the rumba box could also produce a rich and unusual percussive sound. The rumba box is typically sat on as it is played. Scaled-down souvenir rumba boxes were available to tourists in Jamaica during the 1950s and 1960s.

The type of percussion heard on these recordings is another important feature of mento's unique sound. A full drum set would have been impractical, too expensive and a poor fit for such a rural, acoustic and informal music. Instead, if drums were present on a rural recording, a single hand drum was typically used. But as is often the case in mento, less is more. The single drum could really open up the music, by playing a solo or by its playing throughout a song. Sometimes, a second percussion instrument would be added, such as maracas (which were typical) or wood blocks. Hand drumming developed further in later Jamaican music, as African-influenced Rastafarian nyabhinghi drumming became an important ingredient in reggae. 

Additional instruments (such as harmonica, fiddle, fife or penny whistle, and others) were also part of rural mento and found their way into many recordings from this era. It seems to be a rule that if a mento song features harmonica, it would be a fantastically upbeat recording. Likewise, if it featured fiddle, it sounded very country to my ears.

In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the popularity of R&B in Jamaica would effectively filter out banjo, bamboo instruments, clarinet, rumba box, flute, fife and penny whistle from later Jamaican music.

The Urban Mento Style

With lineage back to the Caribbean-jazz bands of the 1920s, there was a second style of mento. This was the more urban, polished, jazzy dance band style. (This term came from Dan Neely's liner notes in the compilation CD, "Boogu Yagga Gal") If you are looking at a mento label and the word "Orchestra" appears in the artist's name, it's most probably a dance band recording. 

In dance band mento, home-made instruments were replaced by professional saxes and clarinets and basses. Often, banjo was left behind in favor of electric guitar. Along with clarinet, piano was often a featured instrument, as the music became overtly jazzy. Percussion was less rustic, and sometimes had a Latin feel. Almost all of the rural style's rough edges were smoothed out. In the 1960s, a calypso inflection was often heard in urban reggae, replacing the jazz sound. Dance band mento seems to have largely died out by the 70s, while the original rural style continued. However, the musicians of this style of mento contributed greatly to the jazz that was such an important element of ska.

The Lyrics

Though mento bands recorded a handful of quadrille and mento instrumentals, most mento songs had vocals. Mento's lyrics are typically a lot of fun. As a whole, they portray the issues, large and small, of life in Jamaica. Some songs are about Jamaica itself. Some described Jamaican foods and recipes -- just one way that mento gave you a real slice of Jamaican life in the 1950s. (There were so many songs about various fruits, it could be considered a sub-genre.) The trials and tribulations of Jamaicans migrating to England was a popular topic. All manner of relationships between people are explored, as is the problematic and comic relationship between man and animal. Though there a few serious or sad songs, the great majority were happy and positive.

Humor was integral to many mento songs. This sometimes includes ribald lyrics, filled with double entendres, which delighted Jamaicans and tourists alike. These songs were very popular, and can be seen as the beginning of what grew into the explicit slackness lyrics in reggae. Though, by today's standards, mento naughtiness is very mild. Yet, the popularity of these records led to a scare where the Jamaican government considered banning native 'calypso' records! There were also topical songs describing and commenting on the latest styles and news stories. This may be the earliest song writing tradition in mento, along with adapting Jamaican folk songs. Two mento lyricists stand out: Count Lasher and Everard Williams, who each wrote a bushel of classic songs. There are very few of what could be described as a traditional love song in mento. Also refreshingly absent are self aggrandizing lyrics. Mento artists had enough to say without singing about their own preeminence. 

In addition to songs of Jamaican origin, many Trinidadian calypso songs made their way into the mento repertoire. For example, "Hold 'em Joe" was first recorded by Lord Executioner in the 1910s. But while a number of songs found their way to Jamaica's shores, the calypso practice of extemporaneously improvising lyrics did not. Mento songs aimed specifically at Jamaica's tourists, such as "Take Her To Jamaica (Where The Rum Comes From)" where also part of the mix.

Recording more than one vocal performance to the same musical backing is a quintessentially reggae practice. But it appears to have originated in mento, where this was not uncommon. Old folk and mento melodies would sometimes acquire altered, or an entirely new set of lyrics. (The melody from "Rucumbine" proved to be especially reusable.) Those who have acquired these recordings described on the Can I Buy Mento Music? page can compare "Naughty Little Flea" from Lord Flea’s "Swinging Calypsos" to "Nebuchadnezzar" from Laurel Aitken’s "The Pioneer of Jamaican Music". The lyrical content and vocal style couldn’t be more different, but the music is essentially the same. Or compare the two Lord Composer clips, Galag Gully; Matilda and Hill and Gully Ride; Mandeville Road. As in reggae, this practice does nothing to take away from the enjoyment of these recordings.

The Vocals

Mento's vocalists sang in a variety of styles and pitches. But if there is one style that sounds most mento of all, it's the nasal, rural sound that some mento singers possessed. It's a sound with strong echoes of African heritage. Listen to the intonation, phrasing and melodic approach that Harold Richardson displays in the opening line of, "Don't Fence Her In", or in, "Glamour Gal". That is a great mento voice. Then, listen to Alert Bedasse, the lead singer in Chin's Calypso Sextet on such songs as "Adam and Eve" and "Not Me Again". You will hear a very mento voice. (You will also hear bamboo sax, a very mento instrument.) Some reggae singers posses something of these vocal qualities, but (with the exception of the heavily mento influences Stanley Beckford) never really matched this sound.

The Venues and Festivals

Mento was everywhere in Jamaica, live and recorded, in the country and the city, uptown and downtown, at work, at dances, at funerals, at burlesque shows, at tourist resorts, as an added attraction at the movie theater, at bars, at the airport, at markets, at night clubs and at festivals and contests. Basically, any public gathering might include a mento band as entertainment. But it was at the festivals and competitions where one could have been treated to incredible multi-act bills.

For example, in 1953, the Ward Theatre hosted the First Annual All-Island Calypso Band Contest. Thirteen bands competed, including first place winner Lord Power, second place winner Lord Messam. There was a tie for third between Lord Food and His Firehouse Four and Clyde Hoyte and his Sunbeams . Sugar Belly won a consolation prize, as the controversial scoring was said to have penalized him. Power's raucous set was lauded, but Messam's set was said to be tame because he was too used to catering to the tastes of tourists. Hoyte's set was said to be suited for a nightclub and Lord Food (I wonder if this is Lord Foodoos) performed "Mother Love".

An even more impressive collection of talent was assembled at the 1955 Calypso Pepper Pot show, again a the Ward Theatre, as seen below left. Silver Seas, Lord Lebby, Lord Messam, Count Lasher, visiting Trinidadian calypsonians, renown Jamaican jazz band Eric Deans and His Orchestra and many more performed, including Lord Tanamo and Sir Horace, both of whom were not part of the advertisement. Judges included Louise Bennett, Mapletoft Poulle and Stanley Motta. The winner was Silver Seas for their song "Chinese Cricket". Second place was Count Barry featuring lead vocalist Lord Lebby. Third place was has by Count Lasher for his performance of "History of Jamaica" and "Calypso Cha Cha." Lord Messam won best costume and performed "If You're Not White, You're Considered Black".

Dillon was born in 1948 in Linstead, St. Catherine, Jamaica.^[1] Influenced by American singers Connie Francis, Patti Page and Dionne Warwick, she began singing in talent contests. It was during a performance at the Glass Bucket Club in Kingston, Jamaica with the group The Vulcans, that Duke Reid's session guitarist Lynn Taitt discovered Dillon.

Dillon was 19 when she recorded her first record for Duke Reid. In 1967, Reid released Dillon's "Don’t Stay Away". While most of Dillon’s subsequent recordings would be covers of popular and obscure American songs including Bettye Swann's "Make Me Yours", Perry Como's "Tulips and Heather," The Grass Roots' "Midnight Confessions," and Stephen Stills's "Love the One You're With"; "Don't Stay Away" was an original composition featuring Tommy McCook and the Supersonics as the backing band.

Another original song, "It’s Rocking Time" would later be turned into the Alton Ellis' hit "Rocksteady". While these early recordings demonstrate Dillon's mastery of the rocksteady sound, a much slower, soulful, response to the sultry weather that made ska's upbeat rhythm and tempo undesirable even impracticable, it was no indication of her greatest performance, 1967’s "Perfidia". Popularized by the American surf rock band The Ventures, "Perfidia" is a 1940 song written by Alberto Domínguez and made popular by the Cuban bandleader, Xavier Cugat.

At the end of 1967, Dillon moved to New York.^[1] The following five years, she spent living a double life. She had a family and career in the United States, flying frequently back to Kingston, Jamaica to continue recording for Reid.

After a number of singles and an album entitled Living in Love, Dillon ended her recording career in 1971. She was 23 years old.

In 1991, Michael Bonnet, the entertainment director for the Oceanea Hotel in Kingston approached Dillon inviting her to sing. Her refusal at first was later rescinded and sparked a revitalized interest in performing and recording. In the years following, Dillion would tour the UK, Germany and Japan.

In 1998 Phyllis Dillon returned to the recording studio with Lynn Taitt, marked by reinterest in ska music in the United States. She remained active until illness took hold.

Phyllis Dillon died on 15 April 2004 in New York, after a two year battle with cancer, at the age of 56.^[1]

Shervington began his career in the early 1970s as a member of the showband Tomorrow's Children.^[2] Inspired by the success of Ernie Smith's "Duppy or a Gunman" and Tinga Stewart's "Play de Music", both delivered in heavy patois, he recorded "Ram Goat Liver" in a similar style.^[2] The follow-up, single "Dat" - about a Rastafarian with a secret liking for pork, contrary to his faith - achieved considerable chart success internationally in 1976, reaching the number 6 in the UK Singles Chart.^[2] Trojan Records capitalized on this success by reissuing his first single, which peaked just outside the top 40 in the UK.^[2]

Shervington moved to Miami, Florida in the early 1980s, and continued recording, enjoying another big hit in 1982 with "Your Honour", which reached the UK top 20.^[2] This song dealt with a prisoner's courtroom pleas of innocence, in the face of insurmountable evidence to the contrary. The song's somewhat racy nature, and comical styling is in the best traditions of calypso, and many elements of reggae. Shervington often performs live in Miami, and periodically returns to his homeland for performances. As of 2007^[update] he plays solo at Bahama Breeze in Kendall, Florida; and every other Sunday at Black Point Marina in Cutler Bay with a five piece band. Pluto appeared at the St. Kitts Music Festival on Friday 22 June 2007, sharing the bill with Steel Pulse and Sean Paul, amongst others.^[3]

In addition to his work as a singer, Shervington gained a reputation as a talented bass guitarist, and as a recording engineer, notably engineering Little Roy's 1974 album, Tafari Earth Uprising.^[4]

King Stitt, born Winston Spark  (17 September 1940 in Kingston, Jamaica)

King Stitt is the oldest living Jamaican deejay. Sparkes was given the nickname Stitt as a boy and decided to use it as his stage name, becoming King Stitt when he was crowned 'king of the deejays'.^{[citation needed]} He began deejaying on Coxsone Dodd's Sir Coxsone's Downbeat Sound System in 1956 or 1957, influenced by American DJs heard on radio broadcasts from Miami and New Orleans.^[1] Count Machuki, the original Jamaican deejay, noticed him for his dancing and offered him to try his hand on the mic.^[1] Born with a facial malformation, King Stitt took advantage of it and called himself The Ugly One, in reference to the Sergio Leone western movie The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly.^[1]

His first record releases came from producer Clancy Eccles with classic deejay tracks like "Fire Corner", "Lee Van Cleef", "Herbman Shuffle", "Vigorton 2", and "Dance Beat".^[1][2] Upon the success of these releases, Sir Coxsone began to release his own recordings of Stitt on now scarce 7" singles. A full album was released by Coxsone entitled Dancehall '63 in the late 90's of Stitt deejaying over old-school rhythms like Owen Grey's "On the Beach". A full CD of hard to find 7" singles called Reggae Fire Beat was released on Jamaican Gold CD label.

King Stitt can be seen selecting & deejaying on the Soul Jazz DVD documentary of STUDIO ONE called The Studio One Story. Also, King Stitt was seen as recently as 2002's Legends of Ska concert series in Toronto, where he selected and deejayed before, after, and between sets. A documentary of the Legends of Ska concert series was made but not yet released.

Reggae is Jamaica's largest cultural export, and since its humble beginnings from the ghettos of Kingston, reggae has grown to become a worldwide cultural and musical expression. There are reggae bands from every habitable continent of the world, and as with music from the Jamaican source, reggae is a vehicle to teach, uplift, and inspire. The music that came from the ghettos has been the most powerful voice of the downpressed, music that carries the cry from Trenchtown (the Kingston neighborhood so named for the open sewer trench) to the heavens—if you want to hear the heartbeat of The People, listen to Reggae music! Since the early days in Jamaica, and through to the present day worldwide, Reggae is filled with Social commentary, reflections on life (often by the poor and those marginalized by society), musings on systemic corruption- living in Babylon, a call to love, raising African consciousness, repatriation, teaching self-reliance, and of course—rejoicing the blessings of life, and giving praises and exaltations to Jah Rastafari...

Jamaica's booming tourist industry is fueled largely by the world's love and fascination for Reggae Music and Jamaican culture. Tourists come to enjoy Jamaica's many festivals, including Sunsplash (which has also toured multiple times outside of Jamaica), Sumfest, Rebel Salute, Sting, White River Reggae Bash, among others. Not only has reggae become Jamaica's largest cultural export, but the large Jamaican and Caribbean communities in the United Kingdom (London and Birmingham particularly) have made the UK the second-capitol for reggae. Germany, France, Italy, many parts of the US—especially the coasts, plus Hawaii...Brazil, Argentina...all of these nations are skankin' and swayin' to the beats of their own native reggae bands. Most notably throughout the past 5-7 years, the U.S. Virgin Islands have been producing a new wave of strictly conscious roots reggae music.

Bob Marley, The King Of Reggae

If there is any singular icon representing reggae music, it is Bob Marley. Many reggae fans are indoctrinated into the world of reggae by way of the music from "The King Of Reggae," Bob Marley. Marley's music and image can be found in all of the corners of the world, from college dorm rooms in the Midwest, to secluded beach cafes in Thailand, on the flags of freedom fighters in Africa, to stickers on the sides of festival drums in Brazil. It is said that his image is the most recognized of any celebrity or star throughout the entire world. His music strikes a chord with people of all races, colors, and creeds: "Get Up, Stand Up," is a call to freedom fighters everywhere, just as "One Love" is a simple and unabashed call for unity amongst all people. "Waiting In Vain" is one of the best lovers' tracks in the whole cannon of love songs, reggae or otherwise. Time Magazine notes the EXODUS album as The Best Music Album of the 20th century.

Bob Marley started his singing career as one of the original Wailing Wailers, along side Peter Tosh and Bunny Wailer. They came up, as did so many of the Jamaican greats (such as Burning Spear, Joseph Hill of Culture, The Abyssinians, The Skatalites, Ken Boothe, John Holt, Alton Ellis, to name a few) under the wing of Coxsone Dodd and Studio One. The Wailing Wailers' early tracks were ska numbers, soon followed by the slightly slower rock steady, and finally The Wailers helped to originate what we now know as reggae—slower tempos, heavy bass, the rich syrupy musical feel, and most notably a spiritual emphasis centered in Rastafarian consciousness. Bob Marley still remains today arguably the biggest proponent for introducing Rastafari consciousness to the masses worldwide. Bob Marley actively incorporated elements of blues, rock, funk, and R&B into his music, in hopes of crossing over and reaching American, European, African, and ultimately worldwide audiences. Although Jimmy Cliff scored big hits in the United Kingdom before Marley, Bob was the first "Third-World" Superstar to reach the world stage.

Bob Marley is still considered the King Of Reggae, even more than twenty years after his passing. The music and message of Bob Marley continue to influence new generations of rock, blues, hip hop, and of course, reggae and dancehall musicians, as well as people from all walks of life.

Types of Reggae

Ska The original sound of reggae (pre-reggae), played in Jamaica in the early 1960's, originated largely by the island's resort and studio players who came together to form The Skatalites. The early hits from The Wailing Wailers, such as "One Cup Of Coffee," "Simmer Down," and the original "One Love" are all great examples of ska featuring vocals. (A large part of original Jamaican ska was instrumental—check anything from The Skatalites! The Skatalites were the instrumental backing band for some of the early Wailers' tracks.) Ska relies heavily on the saxophone, trumpet, and trombone to carry the melodies, and has a prominent steady upbeat carrying the music forward.

Rocksteady Rocksteady is similar to ska, yet with a slight slowing of the tempos: not quite as fast beat per-beat as ska. While the horn sections could still be heard in some of the rocksteady era, more importance is placed on the piano and guitar in both the rhythm section, as well as the melodic role. Rocksteady begins to slow the baselines down, and thickens the feel—a direct precursor to reggae. Alton Ellis (The King of rocksteady: "Girl I've Got A Date" a seminal rocksteady track, that thanks to U-Roy's "Wake The Town," would also form the basis for the dawn of the Deejay era), Bob Andy, Ken Boothe, Toots & The Maytals, The original Wailers are all performers of rocksteady

Reggae Reggae, like ska and rocksteady, reggae emphasizes an off-beat, syncopated guitar, piano, or sometimes horn chop (known as the 'skank' rhythm), only in reggae the tempo is slower, the skank is heavier than in ska and rocksteady, the bass even heavier and thicker. Reggae also has a greater predominance of lyrics dealing with spiritual calling, faith, poverty, systematic down-pression, Babylon tribulations, ganja, and—back to that spiritual calling: Rastafari! Much of Reggae is nothing short of a devotional form of music celebrating the teachings, life and works of His Imperial Majesty Haile Selassie I, praises to The King Of Kings, chants and exaltations to The Conquering Lion of The Tribe Of Judah, "sighted" or "seen" by Rasta to be "Christ in his Kingly Character." (Rasta will differentiate 'belief' in Selassie vs. 'knowledge' of The King, saying that in belief there can still be doubt, while in knowledge there is only certainty.) Reggae in and of itself is still nowadays a general and broad description of style, wide-ranging, deep and wide in its breadth, and includes several sub-genres:

Roots Reggae/ Foundation/ Roots & Culture Foundation is becoming the word nowadays for Roots Reggae, as it really encapsulates the sound and feel of the original form of Reggae. There is The Sound and The Message in Foundation. Roots Reggae/Foundation is exemplified by singers and groups such as: Burning Spear, Culture, The Abyssinians, The Mighty Diamonds, Gregory Isaacs, Dennis Brown, The Gladiators, The Heptones, and of course Bob Marley & The Wailers, to name a few. While many of the performers listed gave us timeless love songs, the Roots emphasis tends more towards spiritual messages: Rastafari praises, exaltations of Hailie Selassie I; self empowerment and reliance for black people; uplifting and uprising from slums and poor social conditions; breaking down systemic slavery, confusion, and corruption; peace among all peoples, non-violence, African consciousness, clean living, are all recurring themes within Foundation Roots Reggae. Many of the Foundation artists were vocal trios, a staple in the reggae form, exemplifying through harmony a way of life.

Lovers' Rock The love songs have been there since the beginning, since ska and rocksteady, through Foundation to the present time. Roots/Foundation artists considered to be kings of the lovers' genre are none other than Dennis Brown and Gregory Isaacs, as well as Freddie McGregor and Beres Hammond. Lovers' Rock woos the listener with sweet singing and beautiful melodies. Maxi Priest, Sanchez, and Bitty McClean are some of the better-known modern Lovers' singers.

Dub Dub is one of the wild sides of reggae—originally the B-sides, to be sure. Dub music started as instrumental versions ("version") on the B-sides of popular 45rpm 7" singles. Early on, the sides were versions with the vocals dropped out, and not much if any other alteration. Dub quickly gave way to more experimentation as early pioneers King Tubby, Lee "Scratch" Perry began to play more with the levels in the mixes, dropping in and out the parts, and most importantly incorporating increasing amounts of reverb, delay, panning, and phasing—the engineer and mixer become the musical artist with clever deconstruction and re-construction of the original tracks—Dub would give rise to the Deejay styles (which would move into Dancehall/ Ragga), hip-hop, electro-dance styles, re-mix, and much more in the way of experimental and electronic forms of music. King Tubby, Scientist, Lee "Scratch" Perry, Linval Thompson, Gussie Clark are some of the classic dubbers, while Mad Professor, Bill Laswell, Adrian Sherwood, Dub Syndicate, and Twilight Circus Dub Sound System (among others) are some of the artists bringing dub into the 21st Century.

Deejays The Deejays are the original rappers! These intrepid singers would get up and "toast" or chat and chant over dub-plates or instrumental versions of popular reggae riddims, usually played at sound-system dances. Not to be confused with radio host DJ's (selectors), the Deejays, in the likes of U-Roy, Big Youth, Dennis Alcapone, and Lone Ranger, were pioneering a new vocal art form and style (styles!) as they performed. Most of their work was done over the B-side "versions" of 45's being spun in the popular street dances and dancehalls in Jamaica starting in the early 70's, and continuing through the 80's to the present day. The original Deejays, from the U-Roy's 1970 hit, "Wake The Town" precede hip-hop by about 10 years—it was the Deejays that began the art of mixing vocals over turntable tracks. While much of the Deejay work may still convey some of the messages from the Roots/Foundation sensibility, the Deejays tend to mix in more fun, playful lyrical elements, vocalizations, "bims, bings, brapps, and ripbits!" The songs indeed bring some of the tongue-and-cheek humorous traditions from calypso into the mix, reflections on the times through clever and wry lyrics; and of course—the self-aggrandizing reminder of how great the performer is on the soundsystem mic. The Deejays have a gift for delivering social commentary with a lick of fun too, a smile with your food for thought.

Dancehall Some of the most distinguishing features of Dancehall versus Deejays include faster tempos, and a stripped-down approach to the riddims, including the introduction and growing predominance (from the early 80's) of digital sounds and instrumentation. The Dancehall vocal style is still a Deejay or Singjay style, with a blending of chanting, chatting, or toasting infused with singing. Yellowman is an early king of Dancehall. Also bringing in the new era are performers such as Sugar Minott, Wayne Smith (with "Sleng Teng" heralding the digital age), Tenor Saw, Eek-A-Mouse, Supercat, Ninjaman, and Charlie Chaplin to name a few.

Dancehall is an interesting term for the genre, since so much of the development of classic reggae and deejay style took place IN the dancehalls and street dances. The dancehall is where The People heard, moved, grooved, listened to, and loved whatever fresh was coming out of the Kingston studios, from the ska days on forward. Perhaps this is where the term Dancehall surfaces as a genre, in that it is often the common experiences of life that are reflected in the subject matter of Dancehall. By the early '80's, the Dancehall style is getting harder and more raw, reflecting the raw and harder economic and social times in Jamaica. Much of the subject matter strays away from the spiritual messages of Roots Reggae, focusing instead on gun and gangster themes, sexually explicit lyrics, homophobia, and hard-knocks living. Towards the early and mid '90's, the rise of "conscious" lyrics, Rastafari consciousness, spiritual themes, and uplifting messages make a noticeable return through the works of artists such as Garnett Silk, Anthony B, Capleton, Sizzla, and Buju Banton, to name a few, who have in turn opened the doors for a new generation of "conscious" performers.

Today, many of the styles and sub-genres of Reggae converge to blur the lines, defying neat categorization and labeling. At its heart and root, Reggae music is still "Rebel Music," not always easy to pigeon-hole. Artists and producers forge ahead, incorporating elements from Salsa music, flamenco, R&B, hip-hop, rock, electronic dance, and beyond, into the still-growing form that we call reggae. Dancehall deejays may voice over the deepest dub beats, or singers may make new melodies over classic riddims. Most notable on the world stage today are artists who uplift our consciousness and inspire with cultural and spiritual messages, and those who can deliver "reality lyrics" in a clean, edifying way. Luciano, Mikey General, Warrior King, Junior Kelly, The Marley Brothers (Damian "Jr. Gong," Stephen, Ziggy, Julian, and Ky-Mani), Richie Spice, Everton Blender, Midnite, Bambu Station, Sister Carol, Queen Omega are just some of the artists who come to mind, but—the list goes on! Originators such as Toots & The Maytals, John Holt, Ken Booth, Bunny Wailer, The Abyssinians, The Wailers Band, Steel Pulse, and The Mighty Diamonds still perform (and some still record) to this day. Reggae music is reaching maturity as an art form, even as it still evolves. Reggae's appeal is worldwide, and reggae is here to stay.

Rasta Culture

The Rasta ideal is centered in simplicity and a natural way of living; Self-reliance in favor of materialism; Peace, not war—respect for all living beings; Opposition to the Babylon system: slavery, corruption, downpression, wickedness, all institutionalized within political, governmental, religious, colonialist systems. The original Rastafarians were rooted in Pan-African consciousness as espoused by Marcus Garvey, Leonard P. Howell, and others. The dignity of black peoples, repatriation to Africa, and the divinity of Haile Selassie I, are all essential cornerstones upon which the Rastafari consciousness is founded.

Many of the ideals, precepts, and codes of living within the Rastafari culture are derived from the Bible, most specifically The Nazarite Vows. The Nazarite Vows include dietary codes, as well as the doctrine of not letting the razor (or scissors) touch one's head and hair. Also contained within the vows is the instruction to avoid corpses and graves. The Nazarite has separated him/herself wholly unto Jah, consecrated to Jah through the "clearly uttered" vows, to "be Holy" in the eyes of Jah. (Paraphrased from Numbers 6:2-8.)

Ital Diet and Living

"And God said, Behold, I have given you every herb bearing seed, which is upon the face of all the earth, and every tree, in the which is the fruit of a tree yielding seed; to you it shall be for meat." (Genesis 1:29).

"Ital" refers to diet, but also may infer a wider ideal of purity, all again stemming from that which is put into the body, or Jah's temple, the "Structure." An Ital diet includes natural vegetarian or vegan foods (avoidance of all animal and dairy products—although some Rastas do eat fish), prepared without salt, additives and preservatives, and no processed flour or sugar. Similar to a kosher diet, pork and shellfish are foods that are prohibited in the Ital diet. Strict avoidance of alcohol, fermented drinks and foods, as well as grapes and other foods from vines are also practiced. Also shunned is processed tobacco, but welcomed is Sensimilla, for both eating and smoking. Cannabis being an unadulterated herb (some bearing seed), is welcomed as a God-given gift, a sacrament unto The Most High Jah. Pure, organic foods, unrefined foods are central to the Ital diet, and are said to be closest to the essential Life Force, especially as no killing or blood is involved in Ital "livity" (Rasta living). As ordained in Genesis 1:29, the Ital diet is a natural path reaping only that which grows naturally upon the Earth.

Dreads

"Not every dread is a Rasta and not every Rasta is a dread..." (common Rasta saying/ wisdom)

Adherents to the Rastafarian faith let their hairs grow together, to "dread," or "locks up." Dreadlocks symbolize a Rasta's covenant with The Creator, Jah, and natural ways of life and living. Although there are many cultures through time that have practiced dreading the hair, Rastas sight the Bible for the inspiration to let the hair form dreads. Many Rastas take The Nazarene vows (Numbers 6:5) which include the doctrine: "there shall no razor come upon his head. Until the days be fulfilled in that which he separated himself unto Jah, he shall be holy, and let the lock of the hair of his head grow long." Also from Leviticus 21:5: "They shall not make baldness upon their head, neither shall they shave off the corner of their beard, nor make any cuttings in the flesh."

Rastas may make the distinction between a "dread" (a person merely sporting dreadlocks as a style) and a "Rasta" (one who follows a clean, Ital way of life, and praises Hailie Selassie).

"You Don't haffi dread to be Rasta," (Morgan Heritage).

"Although I've lost my dread, I haven't lost my sight. And until my day of rest, I will follow your light" (Pato Banton).

"It's not the dread upon your head, but the love inna your heart, that mek ya Rastaman" (Sugar Minott).

Patois

The language of Rastas is heard throughout reggae music, the Caribbean, and the world at large. Jamaican patois is a creole form, amalgamating English and African dialects, as well as Hindi, Spanish, and Portuguese. Many Jamaicans speak some degree of patois, depending on the formality of a given situation—seen in life as in music, patois is used to varying degrees within reggae.

The Rastafarian Patois tends to borrow and change words from English, uplifting some of the sounds found therein. "I" replaces me, and "I and I" for you. Rastafarian scholar E. E. Cashmore writes: "I and I" is an expression to totalize the concept of oneness, the oneness of two persons. So God is within all of us and we're one people in fact. I and I means that God is in all men. The bond of Ras Tafari is the bond of God, of man. But man itself needs a head and the head of man is His Imperial Majesty Haile Selassie I (always pronounced as the letter "I," never as the number one) of Ethiopia."

Rastas will "livicate" instead of "dedicate," taking "dead" out of the equation.

"Oppression" becomes "downpression," as the "Up" sound is replaced by "down" in regards to physical, spiritual and/ or mental burden.

"Understanding" becomes "overstanding" as another term for elevating our conscious perspective. "Conscious" may become "I-scious" to avoid any "con" in the word— "I-scious" also becomes "Ishence" in reference to the Holy Herb ganja, which provides meditation, sacrament, and lifts the mind...

"Enjoy" becomes "full-joy," as "En" takes on the sound of "end, or end-joy." "Appreci-love" replaces "appreciate," negating the sound of "hate" in "appreciate."

For more on Rastafarian vocabulary, check:
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rastafarian_vocabulary
• http://www.speakjamaican.com/glossary.html
• http://niceup.com/patois.txt